Ans. is 'b' i.e., Risk factors LEVELS OF PREVENTIONo There are four levels of preventionPrimordial preventionPrimary preventionSecondary preventionTertiary' preventionPrimordial Level of Prevention: is primary prevention (see below) in purest senseo It is the prevention of the emergence or development of risk factors in countries or population groups in which they have not yet appearedo Modes of Intervention:Individual EducationMass Educationo Primordial Level is Best level of prevention for Non-communicable diseasesPrimary Level of Prevention:o It is the action taken prior to onset of disease, which removes the possibility that a disease will ever occuro Modes of Intervention:Health Promotion: Is targeted at strengthening the host through a variety of approaches/ interventions, e.g. Health Education, Environmental modifications. Nutritional interventions. Lifestyle & behavioural changesSpecific Protection: Is targeting the prevention of disease through a specific interventiono Primary level of prevention is applied when 'risk factors are present but disease has not yet taken place'o It signifies 'intervention in the Pre-pathogenesis Phase of a disease/ health problem 'Secondary Level of Prevention:o It halts the progress of disease at its ' incipient stage and prevents complicationso Modes of Intervention:Early Diagnosis: Detection of disturbances while biochemical, functional and morphological changes are still reversible or prior to occurrence of manifest signs & symptomsTreatment: Shortens period of communicability, reduces mortality' and prevents occurrence of further cases (secondary' cases) or any long term disabilityo Secondary level of prevention is applied when disease has possibly set in: It attempts to arrest the disease process, seek unrecognized disease & treat it before irreversibility' and reverse communicability of infectious diseaseso National Health Programmes by Govt. of India mostly operate at Secondary' level of preventiono Secondary prevention is an imperfect tool in control of transmission of disease: It is more expensive and less effective than primary' preventiono It is an important level of prevention for diseases like Tuberculosis. Leprosy and STDsTertiary Level of Prevention:o Is applied when disease has advanced beyond early stages: It aims to reduce or limit impairments & disabilities, minimize suffering caused by existing departures from good healtho Modes of Intervention:Disability? Limitation: It 'prevents the transition of disease from impairment to handicap'Rehabilitation: Training & retraining of an individual to the highest possible level of functional ability'; It can be medical, vocational, social or psychologicalo Tertiary level of prevention signifies 'intervention in late pathogenesis phase'